The Assorted Collection of Studies, by the moon

Moralistic political culture centers more on the society rather than the individual. This does not mean the individual is moot in comparison; however, the people understand the society will affect the group as a whole, thus is generally characterized as the "good society" type of mindset. This type of regional political culture is most prominent in the Northeast, Northern Midwest, and Pacific Northwest. Here, the government serving the people is what propels their thinking; and, politicians should be expected not to profit from their activity. Serving the community in exchange for individual comfort. What results is a more amateur participation in politics.

Traditional political culture focuses on "maintaining social order". This range is dominant in the South, where families are emphasized. Voter turnout is on the lower side, and many of them are social liberals. Government is still seen as a positive force, but the role is restricted to ensuring the maintenance of an existing social order. Limited government is most preferred in this type of culture, as political leaders cater to a more conservative trait. As to the name, this type of political culture is a throwback to older minds.

Individualistic political culture sees government as something that should be further restricted to allow an "open marketplace." They are much concerned about money, thus their main focus is on issues dealing with economics. Political campaigns fall under sneering. This strip of political culture is located in the North Atlantic and Midwest and the Southwest. Voter turnout is, again, low. The private lives of people are of much more importance to the public concerns. People here accept 'dirty politics'. The government, they think, should not have any need or direct concerns for a "good society."

The implication of the differences showcases that people will have difference values and morals depending on location. Their minds and beliefs will be shaped by the people around them, which will continue down the line in a seemingly never ending cycle of molding behaviors and attitudes. It shows that people are not uniform and are allowed to think differently from their opposite coast states (in the case of the East versus the West). In a democracy, we can think about government and politics in our own way and all or some concepts will be considered. If we all had the same type of mind, the government would have little to no conflict sustained.

Dual federalism was the type of system used for the longest time, reigning from the 18th century to the earlier 20th century. Here, the responsibilities and powers of the state and national governments were clearly defined. As people can imagine, the powers were easily discernible much like a layered cake. Particularly, the national government was not as powerful as people say it is compared to cooperative federalism.

Cooperative federalism existed since the New Deal era and ended around the 1960s. In the sort of imagination aforementioned earlier about cake, cooperative federalism is more of a marble variety; the powers of the national and state governments are mixed, blurred, and hard to dissect. Powers were shared in dual federalism, and now the national government may exploit resources to nudge the state governments on what to do. Cooperative federalism is the system of which the national government - practically - coerces the state governments to establish national standards by the use of grants-in-aid. By the giving or denying of finances, the state governments are sort of forced to adhere to the national government's demands if they still want the money.

New federalism was an attempt by presidents Nixon and Reagan to return power to the states. They had seen shifts of power from the states to the national government and - by the use of block grants - give less pressure that categorical grants would do (by imposing stricter and exact areas to invest in). The local and state governments could spend as they pleased in their - what they believed were necessary - areas. This federalism was born in the 1970s and continues to live to this day.

There are many various grants-in-aid - programs which Congress provides money to state and local governments on the condition that the funds will be implemented for purposes defined by the federal government. Categorical grants, for one, are grants that are defined and explicit in nature, Congress pinpointing which issues, laws, problems, etc. wants the finances to be used for and MUST be used for. Block grants are more favored by states' rights activists, provided that they are not as specific and are more open and broad in where to expend the finances (i.e. education, but not specific like on textbooks, equipment, etc.). Project grants are what they suggest: money provided as the state or locality proposes an idea to federal agencies and receives needed expenditures, even if on a competitive level. Those where an equation or formula crunches how much is given to the state or local government from the federal government are formula grants.

Expressed powers are the powers explicitly defined in the US Constitution for the national government. In so to carry out those laws, however, implied powers are created to make certain that there are no discrepancies that might come up; these powers can be born from the necessary and proper clause to further define what the national government can do to carry out the expressed powers. Inherent powers can be tricky and more controversial; by the president's claiming, these powers are NOT expressed in the Constitution but are inferred from the document. Usually this type of power is granted to the president in times of emergency and war, for it's to further carry out the responsibilities of the president.

The Tenth Amendment holds strength what are called reserved powers. What are not denied to the states or delegated to the national government are reserved to the states. This is the concept behind reserved powers, deriving from the Tenth Amendment. On the other hand, concurrent powers are powers shared by both state and national governments. The power to levy taxes, for one, is shared by the national and state governments.

The Articles of Confederation gave little power to the national government, which grew to be of concern as the state governments would debate and discriminate each other yet the national government could do nothing. Most powers were given to the individualistic state governments. The national government was only vested in Congress, and even what little laws they had were reserved to states. The national government was weak. Commerce was also reserved to the states, and the states would compete for foreign trade. There was no enforcement of pre-established treaties; the government was run on a unicameral system (thus no separation of power); national government could not tax; the amendment process and legislating major laws were difficult or impossible to pass. There was basically even no real army. States could bicker at each other and nearly separated the nation without a national government to bind them together.

There are four methods to constitutional amendment.

1.) Must pass in the House and Senate by a 2/3rds vote, then ratification by majority vote of 3/4ths of the state legislatures. Of all the methods, this is the most common, only having one instance where it was note used.

2.) Must pass in the House and Senate by a 2/3rds vote, then ratified by conventions called for the purpose in 3/4s of the states. This one was the only one used for an amendment that was not method 1; this amendment process was used for the cancellation of Prohibition.

3.) Pass in a national convention by Congress, responding to petitions by 2/3rds of the states; ratified by majority vote of 3/4ths of the state legislatures.

4.) Pass in a national convention by Congress in response to petitions by 2/3rds of the states; ratified by conventions called for the purpose in 3/4ths of the states.

Family will always shape our minds just by being with them. We get our early political interactions as they debate and discuss around the dinner table. Generally-speaking, children will follow in the political footsteps of their folks (Democrats to Democrats, Republicans to Republicans). Sometimes, though, we have the black sheep and strays of political views; but, nevertheless, many tend to go along with their family's values and perspectives.

Social groups basically cement or introduce what we believe. For example, certain religions, based on what they preach, will follow along closely towards conservative ideals, or Republican. Many aspects of life - voluntary or involuntary - shape our lives in social groups. These include religion, gender, political parties, labor unions, among other things. Depending on how one is treated or allowed to speak in their social groups can lead them into one political party.

Education is integral where common values are introduced and taught to all children, regardless of differences in person. Subjects like equality and democracy are given to all students. This, however, is differentiated by the time college hits; those that go to higher education will understand and obtain knowledge that will permanently distinguish them from their peers that did not pursue greater knowledge. Also thrown in is the persuasion of colleges to begin getting into politics and political aspects as adults, thus college people will become more influential and involved in political activities; they can then start to identify themselves under which party they want to be.

Political conditions are the last major factor of political socialization. Whatever politics does to the people will either turn or enforce a set of ideals. Basically, the society itself can influence the people in a positive or negative light. For example, the white southerners were, for a long time, Democratic in nature; however, the Democratic Party's racial policies turned them away to the Republic side. By doing what they were doing, they had turned one group of people to another side. No one is inherently anything, but shaped.

I welcome the audience back to the return of sociology lecture review period. The inquiries provided are 33 in total, from the paper: S-O-C 101 Study Guide for Exam #2. Let us proceed with much speediness.

Socialization, as defined in the glossary of class required book, is the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group - the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them. In this sense, socialization of any group of interest and fashion will have varying outcomes and protocol. "Socialization influences not only how we express our emotions but also what emotions we fell."

The language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material objects that characterize a group and are passed from one generation to the next is the word culture.

There are forces that play a part of our lives every day in some way, shape, or form. (Think: gravity, normal force, frictional, etc.). But not all are conservative. By definition, this means that when forces are applied or were applied, they did not depend on the path of the object or what the object did.

The two main definitions are as follows (listed by 'versions'):

Version 1 - A force is conservative when the work it does on a moving object is independent of the path between the object's initial and final positions.
Version 2 - [blah blah force is conservative, yeah] when it does no net work on an object moving around a closed path, starting and finishing at the same point.

Since these are my notes on [boring] Physics, let's make this more fun.

The example for Version 1 is given for gravity. Let's use poor Ikutsuki (Persona 3). No matter in which direction or way he fell off of Tartarus, gravity would still affect him. If he fell right, gravity affected him; if he fell left, gravity affected him. It doesn't matter at all. Gravity would still affect him, and thus gravity is INDEPENDENT of his path. This makes gravity conservative.

Version 2 uses a roller coaster. It's pretty simple enough. The carts come back to their original places, and thus the only force affecting the carts (disregarding friction and air resistance) is gravity. The actual terminology for this kind of path is called a closed path. (While normal force does work on the carts, remember that normal force is always perpendicular to the tracks, equaling out to be that they have no effect on the roller coaster).

Now we move onto nonconservative forces. They do work depending on paths and all that junk. Kinetic frictional force is an example. Let's say that Vanilla (Steambot Chronicles) presses the harmonica against his lips and rubs between them with the instrument. No, I don't know how to actually play a harmonica and might not know if you actually press lips against this thing. The friction of K_HL (harmonica 'to' lips) is very much dependent on how much force he does to push it. If he slides little, the force is little; if he slides a lot, the force is a lot. As kinetic energy is to potential energy, gravity is to air resistance. Air resistance is nonconservative but potential energy is not nonconservative.

Remembering that when forces or concepts are conservative that the overall total of force or work is zero, on a closed path, nonconservative forces do not equal zero. Friction helps with this concept.

Here is a list of forces that are conservative and nonconservative:

Conservative-
> Gravitational (Ikutsuki fell off Tartarus; gravity is not dependent on his path)
> Elastic spring force (...no example in mind)
> Electric force (...no example in mind, again)

Nonconservative
> Static and kinetic frictional forces (Vanilla sliding the harmonica)
> Air resistance (The party of Final Fantasy X fall off of the airship; depending on their amount of clothes and how they fell, one is guaranteed to land on the ground sooner than someone else)
> Tension (...no example in mind)
> Normal force (Ken [Persona 3] stands on his tiptoes; the normal force between when he's not on his tiptoes and when he is might be different)
> Propulsion force of a rocket (...no example in mind)


Of course, forces that are conservative and nonconservative work together on a moving object. With this, we can then use this equation: W = W_c + W_nc. W is the work done by net external force(s). W_c would be Ikutsuki; W_nc would be Ken: gravity + normal force, for example.

Now then, what we learned before (the work-energy theorum) states that work done by the net external force = change in the object's kinetic energy, or W_c + W_nc = 1/2mv_f² - 1/2mv₀². If Ikutsuki is the only person working in any case (like the filthy bastard he is, screwing things over), we then have him (as a conservative force [lols 'conservative']) use this equation: W_c = W_gravity = mg(h₀ - h_f; thanks to his plans of destroying worlds (basically), the work-energy theorum transmogrifies into: mg(h₀ - h_f) + W_nc = 1/2mv_f² - 1/2mv₀².
Let's use the magic of algebra and work this bitch out:

> W_nc = (1/2mv_f² - 1/2mv₀²) + (mgh_f - mgh_f) [Work done by Ikutsuki can be moved to the right]
> W_nc = (KE_f - KE₀) + (PE_f - PE₀) [In terms of kinetic and potential energies]
> W_nc = (delta)KE + (delta)PE [Shortening the bastard]

Done.

According to the cell wall characteristics, there are 3 cell types involved in plant cells: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclrenchyma.

Parenchyma - most common type. Have large vacuoles and thin cell walls. Parenchyma in leaves are especially important in photosynthesis while cells in fruit and roots are for storing photosynthate.

Collenchyma - thick at the corners of cell walls. They are elongated; tissues made of collenchyma are flexible and provide support. Reason why nonwoody plants do not break in strong winds.

Schlrenchyma have overall thick cell walls. Are primarily for support and add lignin to cell walls. Lignin is strong, waterproof (hydrophobic), and few animals can digest it. Cells undergo apoptosis after lignifying. Function is carried out after the cell is dead.

There are 2 types of schlrenchyma cells: fiber and schlereids.

Fibers: elongate, often are in bundles, provide rigid support to plant parts. Tree bark has large numbers of fibers.

Schlereids: are more oblong, are densely packed, seed coats and nut shells contain lots of schlereids.

There are 3 common tissue types amongst all plants: dermal, ground, and vascular. Are ordered concentrically in the plant.

Dermal forms a single layer of epidermis. Cells in the dermal tissue sys. are small and round and either have small or absent central vacuoles. Typically these are parenchyma cells. Some epidermal cells differentiate into: stomatal guard cells, trichomes, and root hairs. Epidermal cells secrete cuticle above the ground.

Ground - between dermal and vascular tissue sys.s in the roots and shoots. Are for storage, support, and photosynthesis. Most importantly to note: the ground recruits all the three cell types.

Vascular - transport sys.. 2 sys.s, xylem and phloem do different functions: xylem transports water and minerals (in the form of ions) that are taken up by roots; phloem transports carbohydrates from 'sources' to 'sinks'. What makes up xylem and phloem are specialized sclerenchyma cells.

Xylem - composed of cells that undergo apoptosis before becoming functional; called tracheary elements. There are 2 types: tracheids and vessel elements. Tracheids are found in all vascular plants; are thin, spindle-shaped cells with pits for easy water transfer. Vessel elements - more advanced in water/mineral transport - but only possessed by angiosperms. Angiosperms have larger diameter and form long hollow tubes of many vessel elements.

Phloem have sieve tube elements:

• living cells
  
• meet end-to-end like vessel elements
  
• form sieve tubes
  
• plasmodesmata between sieve tube elements enlarge to form pores
  
• companion cells are their 'life support sys.'
  

Plants grow in 2 dimensions: basally (or apically = up and down) and radially (= laterally).

Lengthening of roots and/or shoots and creating a new root and/or shoot branches is known as primary growth. Secondary growth results in girth (lateral or waist); very evident in trees.

Meristems - pockets of actively dividing cells which produce new tissues indefinitely. Are required for primary and secondary growth. Apical meristems responsible for primary growth; there are root and shoot apical meristems. Lateral meristems do secondary growth; there are vascular cambium and cork cambium for the lateral meristems. All plant organs arise from divisions in apical meristems.

Responsible for root growth are the root apical meristems. Root cap is a layer of protective cells that protects growing root as it pushes thru soil. Zone of cell division - where new cells arise from; zone of elongation - made by new daughter cells lengthening in region; zone of maturation - where cells differentiate, has root hairs (were risen from epidermal cells), and where the cortex is located (where storage occurs; is made by ground cells). (Innermost layer of cortex is endodermic, which regulates flow of ions into vascular tissue).

Vascular tissue - localized in a vascular cylinder, or stele. Pericycle of stele gives rise to lateral roots. Vascular cylinders of eudicots look different than those of monocots; monocots have a pith of parenchyma in the center (storage of photosynthate).

Apical meristems in axillary and terminal buds give rise to new stem tissues. Arrangement of vascular tissue in stems is quite different than in roots. While roots have vascular cylinders, stems have vascular bundles; smaller but contain both xylem and phloem. Are arranged in a ring in eudicots; evenly distributed in monocots.

Shoot apical meristems also give rise to leaves. They arise from leaf primordia of buds. Leaves - well constructed for photosynthesis, exchanging respiratory gasses, minimizing evaporative water loss, and exporting photosynthate. 2 layers of mesophyll (made of parenchyma) - where majority of chloroplasts are; stomata and substomatal chambers; veins are for transportation of water/minerals/photosynthate.

Occurs in some eudicot angiosperms and many gymnosperms. 2 lateral meristems - vascular and cork cambium - give rise to new cells. Vascular produces cells that make up tissues called secondary xylem and secondary phloem, which become wood and bark, respectively; cork produces protective cells, some of which become bark.

Water is for photosynthesis, as a solvent, transport, support, and cooling. Water-use efficiency - plant's net photosynthetic carbon fixation, relative to water uptake. Plants use so much water because only a fraction that travels thru a plant is used. (Irrigation for crop plants uses more water than any other human activity).

Osmosis - diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Plants have large central vacuole. Solutes are actively pumped into the vacuole, increasing amount of solute. Water tends to flow into the vacuole.

Plants lose great amount of water to evapotranspiration. Water - hydrophilic and needs a way to bypass plasma membrane to enter cells. Aquaporin channels are located in the plasma membrane and tonoplast; flow of water thru aquaporins is facilitated diffusion, a passive process (passive - no ATP/energy required).

Minerals are ionized and larger than water; can't passively bypass membranes thru aquaporins. They use transport proteins. Rules of concentration gradients apply (if concentration of mineral in soil > inside plant, can passively enter; not usually the case, so active transport required). Proton pumps are common in plants.

Energy from ATP used to pump protons (H+) out of cell. Difference in electrochemical gradient causes cations to enter cell. Anions can also enter by being simultaneously imported with protons by a symport protein.

How does water reach the xylem?
Apoplast:

• 'Fast lane'
  
• Water travels thru non-living components - cell walls and intercellular spaces
  
• Doesn't cross plasma membrane until (unregulated movement beforehand) reaches Casparian strip of endodermis. Switches to symplast at that point
  

Symplast

• Slower
  
• Water travels thru cytoplasm of living cells via plasmodesmata
  
• Regulated; root cells must allow substances in
  

Endodermal cells are surrounded by Casparian strip, which is a belt of water repellant.

Water and minerals (collectively called xylem sap) cross the endoderm and enter xylem. Xylem sap travels against gravity thru vessel elements. (How does a 300ft tall tree transport water to its top?) Some early experiment dispelled hypotheses regarding how sap travels up xylem: living cells do not 'pump' their sap upwards nor root pressure does not force sap up xylem.

In addition to roots, the stems and leaves also have an apoplast. Evaporative water loss exerts a pulling force on water in leaf apoplast; in turn, this pulls on water in leaf xylem. Water exits thru stomata, known as transpiration. Water molecules are cohesive - or sticky. (Why is this?) Water also adheres to xylem walls, which further stabilizes its cohesion.

Completely passive (requires no work). Mineral ions also move with water. Transpiration is important for evaporative cooling.

Cuticle is great for minimizing water loss; however, CO₂ can't penetrate it. A pair of specialized epidermal cells (
guard cells) regulate the diameter of each stoma. When they're open, CO₂ can enter but water escapes. Conditions will dictate whether stomata are open/closed. Levels of blue light, intercellular CO₂ levels inside leaves, and water levels in mesophyll cells are cues. The plan hormone, abscistic acid, regulates the closing of stomata during periods of water stress or excess CO₂.

Photosynthate is transferred to the nearest leaf vein, and then it is actively transported to sieve tube elements. Translocation - movement of solutes thru phloem. They are transported from 'sources' to 'sinks'. For better elaboration: sources can be organs that produce sugars or digest stored starch; sinks are any organ that consumes or stores sugar; sink can later become a source.

Occurs in both directions. Sieve tube elements and companion cells of phloem are living cells; damages to these cells impedes translocation. Movement thru pores of sieve plates, from celll to cell is movement from symplast. Much research (analysis of content of phloem sap and transport rates) have been conducted using aphids.

Loading (from sources into sieve tubes) and unloading (from sieve tubes into sinks) require ATP. Loading increases solute concentration in sieve tubes; water rushes in as a result. Pressure gradient and phloem sap is pushed toward sink. As solute is unloaded, water moves back into xylem.

One of many reoccuring themes in biology is interaction with the environment. Special features of plants: meristems, post-embryonic organ formation, and differential growth. To maximize their growth, plants must monitor environment and react accordingly. Growth is regulated in several ways:

• environmental cues - detected by receptors
  
• receptors - molecules such as photoreceptor pigments
  
• hormones - signaling molecules that elicit a response; involved in signal transduction pathways
  
• genomes - ultimately encodes for what hormones/receptors/etc. are produced

A seed is dormant when no development is occurring. Dormancy may last a long time, which may offer adaptive advantages:

• Survival during unfavorable conditions
  
• Ensures seeds to not germinate while still attached to parent
  
• Avoid competition - in the case of fire
  
• Long distance dispersal
  

Variation is some cues for breaking dormancy, but water is always required to initiate; water intake is termed imbibition. Water provides medium for chemical reactions for metabolism. Stored nutrients in seed are metabolized. Energy and carbon reserves are housed in cotyledons and endosperm. Polymers are broken down into monomers. Plant will have all of the building blocks to make its own molecules. Can begin to grow and eventually begin photosynthesizing.

Germination ceases and plant is referred to as a seedling as soon as the radicle (embryonic root) emerges; DNA synthesis and mitosis begin at this point. Seedling must elongate quickly and be able to cope without undergoing photosynthesis. The stage is directed with the help of photoreceptors. Variation in this process for various types of plants. (Of course).

Made by plants. Stimulates stem elongation:

• Dwarf mutants
  
• Common for farmers and flower growers to spray plants with gibberellin inhibitors
  

Regulates growth of fruits:

• Seeds in fruits release the hormone
  
• Adding gibberellins to plants is also a common agricultural practice
  

Embryo secretes to initiate break-down of polymers stored in seeds.

Discovered when Darwin conducted experiments to determine how plants bend toward light. Coleoptiles (protects emerging seedling) of monocots are phototropic. In an experiment, they blindfolded portions of coleoptiles, then exposed them to light. Photoreceptors are in the tips and elicits response which results in growth toward light. Responsible for plant movements, among other things. When light strikes a coleoptile on one side, auxin travels to the cells on the shaded side. Cell elongation occurs on one side, causing the plant to bend toward light, which is called phototropism. Gravitropism occurs when a plant is bent over. (Tip over a flower pot or a tree branch falls on an understory plant; auxin moves to cells closest to ground, they elongate and plant rights itself).

Leaf abscission and apical dominance are two functions auxin are responsible for. Auxin is even responsible for loosening cellulose microfibrils of cell walls which allows for cell expansion. Mechanism for some of these responses is similar to gibberellin.

Cytokinins. Ethylene. (Gaseous hormone; promotes senescence; speeds fruit ripening). Brassinosteroids. (Plant steroid hormones).

Because plants are not motile, they must face any environmental challenge that comes their way: pathogens (bacteria, fungi, protists, viruses), herbivory, climate extremes, pollution. Plants are important to our livelihood, so understanding how they mitigate (lessen) the effects of environmental challenges if important to us.

Infection by pathogens results in reduced productivity and possibly death. Coevolution has resulted in an 'arms race'. Plants use both mechanical and chemical defenses against pathogens. Responses can be constitutive (always present; like white blood cells) or induced (arise in response to an infection; like fevers).

The cuticle and epidermis of plants are protective. Prevent some but not all bacteria and fungal spores from penetrating. Some fungal spores hydrolyze cuticle to gain entry into epidermis. Puccinia graminis - wheat rust fungus. Plants can seal off infected parts and discard them.

Plant recognizes it is under attack from cues from pathogen or breakdown of plant molecules. Defense molecules are produced via signal transduction pathways. Molecules may attack pathogen outright, warn neighboring cells, reinforce cell wall, and/or quarantine infected cells.

Damage and transmit diseases to plants. Physical damage may be harmful, harmless, or even beneficial to plant. Trichomes, thorns, and spines offer some protection from herbivory.

Secondary metabolites may offer protection from herbivores. Disrupt many cellular processes: nervous function, hormone mimicry, harm digestive sys.s, and toxin. After nicotine (for example) was isolated, it was used as an insecticide. During herbivory by insects, plant can release chemical that attracts insects to prey on herbivorous insect.

Not likely, as poisons are compartmentalized. Toxins mobilized to tissue that has already been damaged. Plant enzymes/receptors don't typically interact with their toxic secondary metabolites.

Drought, flooding, and extreme temperature can be detrimental. Desert plants have numerous adaptations: thicker cuticle, trichomes, stomatal crypts, and root structures. Several classes of desert lants, each with unique adaptations:

• drought deciduous - small leaves that can be dropped, and photosynthetic stems
  
• drought evaders - germinate, grow, reproduce, and die, all in one season
  
• succulents - water storage, spines, and CAM metabolism
  
• phreatophytes - long taproots that reach ground water
  

Too much water is also a problem. Extracting oxygen is difficult for submerged plant roots. Submerged roots undergo alcoholic fermentation. Some produce root extensions known as pneumatophores.

Not surprisingly, plants can also cope with drought and temperature extremes. Drought - upregulate proteins that stabilize membranes. Heat shock proteins help protect plant from temperature effects:

• High temperature destabilize membranes and denature proteins
  
• Cold temperatures make membranes more viscous preventing solutes from crossing. Increased proportion on unsaturated fatty acids
  
• Ice crystals damage cells by puncturing membranes. Antifreeze potential.

All are multicellular (unlike bacteria, archaea, and most protists). (Metazoans; develop from a single cell). Heterotrophs; internal digestion; movement. Some exceptions to these general characteristics.

Cleavage (cell division) patterns of zygotes:

• Vary according to amount/position of yolk accompanying the developing embryo
  
• Cleavage can be radical or spiral
  

Cell layers:

• Germ layers differentiate into specific organs and organ sys.s
  
• Diploblastic animals have endoderm and ectoderm
  
• Triplblastic animals also have mesoderm
  

Development of openings

• In protostomes, blastopore of gastrula becomes mouth
  
• In deuterostomes, blastopore becomes anus
  

Described by four key features.

1. Symmetry

• A few are asymmetrical - can't be divided into equal parts on any plane
  
• Many are radically symmetrical - organized around main axis
  
• Most are bilaterally symmetrical - correlated with cephalization
  
• Symmetry dictates life history, behavior, ecology, physiology, etc.
  

2. Body Cavities

• Three classification according to presence or absense of a internal, fluid-filled space - acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate
  
• Strongly influences organismal movement
  
• Aceolomate animals lack a body cavity - body tissues are continuous
  
• Some have pseduocoelom (fluid-filled space containing organs; not a true coelom because organs are not covered with mesoderm)
• A coelom is a true body cavity (lined with mesoderm; mesoderm also surrounds organs of body cavity)
  

Closely tied to the type of body cavity an animal has. Many animals use the fluid in their body cavities for movement and support - hydrostatic skeleton. Many animals have exo or endoskeleton. Acoelomate animals typically glide with cilia. Pseudocoelomates and coelomates typically contract muscles surrounding hydrostat.

3. Segmentation improves control over hydrostatic skeleton.

4. Appendages for sensing, chewing, locomotion, and mating.

All are heterotrophs, but some rely on endosymbionts. Foraging expends energy. Animals can be sessile or motile, and this dictates feeding strategies:

• Filter feeders
  
• Herbivores
  
• Predators
  
• Parasites
  
• Detritivores
  

Eat plants. Some generalize on plant tissues and products; others specialize. Little energy is required in foraging; don't have to chase down or kill a plant. Energy is expended digesting cellulose and neutralizing plant toxins. Herbivores have long, complex guts.

Capture and eat prey. Often have sharp teeth and claws. May stalk and pursue or sit and wait. May possess toxins.

Live on (ectoparasites) or in (endoparasites) a host. Decrease the fitness of the host, but don't typically kill. Ectoparasite morphology is typically more complex than that of endoparasites. Endoparasites often have coomplex life cycles.

Feed on detritus (dead/decomposing matter). Important nutrient cyclers. Earthworms are very important to soil production/quality. Also, omnivores are those org.s that switch modes of feeding. (Ex. - carnivorous to herbivorous).

Direct development - juveniles resemble adults. (Ex. - fish, reptiles, birds, mammals). Indirect development - at least two life stages. (Larvae are feeding stage; metamorphosis; adults develop for the purpose of reproduction). <-- Good for resource partitioning. Dispersal occurs at some point.

Sponges are a separate lineage from all other animals. In addition to sponges, the placozoans, ctenophores, and cnidarians make up the diploblastic animals. (Two tissues; neither protostomes or deuterostomes). All other animals belong to group called bilateria.

• Three tissues
  
• Protostomes and deuterostomes
  
• Many more specialized organs and sys.s
  

Simplest - lack true organs. Possess spicules - silica and calcium. Possess protein fibers known as spongin. Most filter feed by beating ciliated cells known as chaoanocytes. (Draw food particles to them, trap, and engulf). Water expelled thru osculum. Can be very small or quite large.

(Placozoans won't be discussed). Commonly referred to as comb jellies. Radially symmetrical and diploblastic. (Ectoderm and endoderm separated by gelatinous mesoglea). 8 rows of ctenes which contain many cilia on their surface. (For locomotion). Tw sticky tentacles for feeding.

Jellyfishes, sea anemones, corals, and hydrozoans. Single opening to gastrovascular cavity serves as mouth and anus. Gastrovascular cavity responsible for digestion, circulations, gas exchange, and hydrostat. Life cycle rotates between polyp and medusa. paralyze or kill prey with stinging cells called nematocysts. Photosynthetic dinoflagellates live within polyps of many anthozoans.

Two major glades:

• Lophotrochozoans - feeding structures known as lophophore, and larval stage known as trochophore
  
• Ecdysozoans - molt
  

Coelomic condition varies. General characteristics:

• Triploblastic
  
• Mouth develops from blastophore
  
• Bilateral symmetry (brain is anterior)
  
• Ventral nerve cords
  

Flattened with large surface area to volume ratio. Acoelomate. Lack circulatory and respiratory sys.s. Free-living and parasitic varieties. Parasitic flatworms lack digestive sys.s.

Segmented worms: polychaetes, earthworms, leeches. Septa result in individual coeloms, in which organs are repeated. Require moist environments, and they absorb water and transfer respiratory gasses across body surface. Polychaetes are most diverse group - possess parapodia. Tube worms of deep sea hydrothermal vents are one type of polychaete.

Oligochaetes - earthworms

• Detritivores that live in soil
  
• Hermaphroditic
  
• Eggs are fertilized/develop in cocoons
  

Leeches

• Suckers attach to host and teeth make incision
  
• Anticoagulant and analgeisic components to saliva
  
• Are still used for some medical applications
  

One of the most diverse groups of invertebrates. Common to all mollusks is a foot, visceral mass, and mantle. Foot is muscular and is primarily used for locomotion. (Modified in cephalopods). Visceral mass is where heart, digestive, excretory, and reproductive organs are located. Mantle covers visceral mass and secretes shell. Aquatic mollusks posses gills; lungs in terrestrial. Unique feeding structures such as gills, radula, beaks, and even poison darts in cone snails.

Chitons

• Have 8 overlapping calcareous plates
  
• Large foot that clings to rock in the ocean
  
• Radula for scraping algae off rocks
  

Bivalves

• Clams, oysters, scallops, and mussels
  
• Hinged shell composed of two valves
  
• Siphon brings in water for filter feeding (on gills)
  
• Move using foot, by clapping valves, or shooting water out of siphon
  
• Foot is also used to burrow in sand
  

Gastropods

• Snails, slugs, sea slugs, etc.
  
• Use foot for gliding or swimming
  
• Many snails and slugs are terrestrial
  

Cephalopods

• Squids, octopuses, cuttlefishes, and nautiluses
  
• Move by shooting stream of water out of excurrent siphon
  
• Most intelligent inverts
  
• Visual predators with highly evolved sensory sys.s/eyes
  

All ecydozoans molt. Hormone that regulates molting is ecdysone. Roundworms are possibly the most abundant and ubiquitous of all animal groups. Found in soils and sediments and one rotting apple may be home to 90k individuals. Lack segments. Possess logitudinal muscles only. Free-living and parasitic varieties.

Most diverse animals. Possess jointed, paired appendages. Chitinous exoskeletons allows terrestrial athropods to conserve water. Four main groups:

• Crustaceans - crabs, shrimps, lobsters, etc.
  
• Hexapods - insects
  
• Myriapods - centipedes and millipedes
  
• Chelicerates - spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks
  

Myriapods

• Have two main body portions: head and trunk
  
• Many legs: one pair per segment in centipedes, two per segment in millipedes
  
• Some large tropical centipedes are deadly
  

Chelicerates

• Two main body segments: cephalothorax and abdomen
  
• Two pairs of modified mouthparts: chelicerae (fangs) and pedipalps (manipulating food)
  

Dominant marine arthropods. Many freshwater varieties. Decapods, isopods, and amphipods are common groups. Many specialized appendages: mouthparts, antennae, limbs and flippers for locomotion, etc. Fertilized eggs are usually attached to female until they hatch.

Dominant terrestrial anthropods. Six legs. Most can fly - two pairs of wings. (Flying insects = important pollinators). Three body regions: head, thorax, abdomen. Respiratory sys. consist of tracheae.

Triploblastic. Coelomate. Bilateral symmetry. Blastopore forms anus; mouth develops later.

Exclusively marine. Bilaterally symmetrical larvae. Special type of radial symmetry. (Pentaradial symmetry). No head, but an oral surface and an aboral surface. Also have endoskeletons and a water vascular sys. with tube feet. (Functions?)

Feeding in starfish. Regeneration. Evisceration - throwing up insides - in sea cucumbers.

Three groups:

• Cephalochordates - lancelets
  
• Urochordates - tunicates
  
• Vertebrates - lamprey, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
  

Three main features that all share (in at least one life stage):

• Dorsal hollow nerve cord
  
• Post-anal tail
  
• Notochord - becomes vertebral column in verts
  

Lancelets: small, typically found in marine sediments, can swim, filter feeders
Tunicates: also known as sea squirts, can be up to 60cm tall, often found in colonies, filter feeders

Notochord is replaced by a vertebral column in vertebrates. (Function?) Skull and vertebral column to protect enlarged central nervous sys.. Skeleton for movement, support, and protection of internal organs. Coelom Complex circulatory sys. with a heart. Evolution of jaws and teeth were important steps in vertebrate evolution:

• Jaws allow for grasping, subduing, and swallowing of large prey
  
• Teeth are important for grasping and chewing food, which increases mechanical/chemical digestion
  

Sharks, skates, and rays. Have cartilagenous skeletons. All (fish) have various types of fins and swim bladders. Sharks swim thru water column, but skates and rays stay close to ocean floor.

Bony skeletons. Gills covered by operculum. Very diverse.

Coelacanths and lungfishes are more closely related to tetrapods than other fishes are. Evolutionary link between strictly aquatic fish and the first tetrapods. Lungfishes breath air for months at a time.

Frogs (toads), salamanders (newts), and caecilians. Most are closely tied to water due to their moist skins. All are tied to water for reproduction. Burrowing and tailless; with or without tails.

A portable pond:

• Prevents water loss but allows for respiration
  
• Supplies food in the form of yolk and protein
  
• Allantois is a receptacle for metabolic wastes
  

The amniotes (reptiles, birds, mammals) not tied to water for reproduction.

All have scales. Turtles:

• Tortoises when strictly terrestrial
  
• Protective shell
  
• Slow metabolisms and long-lived
  

Lizards have limbs and eyelids where snakes don't. Snakes, effectively limbless lizards. Crocodilians share a common ancestor with birds and also with dinosaurs.

Several large flightless varieties: rheas, emus, kiwis, and ostriches. Most are passerine (songbirds) and fly. Many migrate. Feathers are modified scales evolved for flight. Other adaptations that facilitate flight: wings, hollow bones, large chest muscles, regulate insultation with feathers, and flow-thru lungs. Diverse diets but most eat insects and fruits.

Niches vacated by the extinction of dinosaurs were filled with mammals. Range in size from tiny shrews and bats to blue whales. Of ~5k species, most are rodents, with bats at 2nd. Distinguishing features: sweat glands, mammary glands, hair, four chambered heat that allows for pulmonary circuits and sys.ic circuit.

Protherians formerly known as monotremes, the egg-laying mammals. Therians divide into marsupials and eutherians. In marsupials, gestation is brief and most of young's development occurs in marsupium.

Eutherians are the placental mammals and lack a marsupium. Young gestate for longer period of time. Radiation of mammals after dinosaur extinction resulted in land plant radiations, due to selective pressures from animals.

New world monkeys are arboreal (live in trees) and have prehensile tails. Old world primates lack prehensile tails; many are arboreal but many live on the ground.

Environments fluctuate. Org.s must have mechanisms for maintaining physiological stability, homeostasis. (What is physiology?)

Heat stroke can occur in humans when core temperature exceeps 41deg C:

• Denatures proteins (detach from cell wall)
  
• Disrupts plasma membranes
  
• Apoptosis
  
• Organ sys.s, especially cardiovascular, fail
  

We generate heat which travels thru blood to surface of skin; blood vessels constrict/dilate to regulate heat loss.

Many things need to be exchanged with environment, such as: energy, heat, molecules (water, nutrients, for carbon skeletons, respiratory gasses, nitrogenous waste products of metabolism). Single-celled and simple metazoans do this by diffusion. Complex metazoans require organ sys.s.

Cells are somewhat protected from environmental changes by extracellular fluid (20% blood plasma, 80% interstitial fluid). Ranges of tolerance but are typically narrow. By some cells/tissues/organs being specialized to maintain homeostasis, other cells, etc. can carry out their different specific functions.

Nervous and endocrine sys.s speed/slow physiological activities. (What is the function of endocrine sys.?) How does this occur?:

• 1. Sensor indicate that environment has changed
  
• 2. Signal sent to nervous or endocrine sys.
  
• Response elicited and process is slowed (most cases) or sped up by feedback mechanisms
  

Positive feedback mechanisms don't typically contribute to homeostasis.

Remember biological hierarchy? Cellular: cardiac muscle cell (myocyte); Tissue: cardiac muscle tissue; Organ: heart; organ sys.: circulatory sys.; organism: multiple organ sys.s functioning together to form a zebra, for example.

Groups of similar cells with common function. Four main tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous. Each has different function - FFF.

Epithelial tissue protect, filter, regulate transport into/out of various compartments, secrete enzymes, hormones, and mucus. There are many types of connective tissue. They provide attachment and structural support (ligaments, tendons, bones, cartilage), transport (blood), and energy storage/insulation (adipost). Muscle tissues contract and perform movements (voluntary or involuntary). Nervous tissues receive and send electrical signals (communication). Organs are mode of multiple tissue types. Regulation of an organism's physiology occurs at the cellular level.

Org.s are adapted to tolerate range of temperatures they are exposed to in their natural environment. In cold environments, many animals have antifreeze proteins to prevent cells from freezing. (What happens at 0deg C?) (What happens to proteins at high temperatures?) 0deg C - 40deg C is considered to be the range tolerated by most life; however, org.s have specific ranges of temperature tolerated within this range.

Rate of a process at a particular temperature, divided by the rate of the same process at temperature that is 10deg C less: Q₁₀ = R_T/R_T-10. Q₁₀ values of <=1 indicate that reaction/process insensitive; most bioogical processes have values >=2.

Not all reactions/processes have the same Q₁₀. (Why is this important?)

2 main types of animals, according to their source of body heat:

• Endotherms generate their own heat metabolically, physiologically remove heat
  
• Ectotherms rely on outside heat sources, remove heat thru behaviour
  

Endotherm cells less efficient in converting food to usable energy; they leak more K⁺ and Na⁺, more work performed to maintain proper concentrations. Endotherms have higher metabolisms. They must consume more food, thus more heat produced. (Evolutionary implications of this?)

Ectotherms rely on behavior. Endotherms primarily rely on increases in metabolic rates for heating/cooling. They also supplement with behavior.

• Evaporative cooling
  
• Controlling blood flow
  
• Insulation
  
• Panting
  
• Shivering
  
• Huddling
  
• Brown fat - fat solely for heat
  
• Hiberation
  
• Costs v. benefits
  

Metabolic rate of resting animal that's consuming just enough energy to carry out minimal body functions. Correlated with body size: larger animals have higher BMR; however, gram for gram, larger animals have lower metabolic rates.

Chemical signals secreted by endocrine cells/glands into blood; genome, immune sys., and nervous sys. also important for production of signaling molecules. Important for homeostasis and cell-cell communication; can travel long distance in short-term and long-term. Bind to receptors on target cells, which elicits response. Endocrine glands typically secrete multiple hormones.

Most hormones are peptide or proteins, such as insulin. Many are steroids, made of cholesterol, such as testosterone. Can be water-soluble or lipid-soluble based on molecular structure. Can bind to cell surfaces (water-soluble) or bind intracellularly (lipd-soluble). One hormone may elicit different responses in various cell types.

Pituitary gland - interface between nervous and endocrine sys.s. Anterior portion is endocrine tissue; posterior contains axons. Connected to hypothalamus by a stalk.

2 neurohormones (ADH, oxytocin) are released from hypothalamus. Both trvael to posterior pituitary and enter blood, thus posterior pituitary doesn't make/release own hormones. Binding of ADH results in water conservation in kidneys in birds and mammals. Oxytocin responsible for uterine contractions during childbirth and release of breast milk; baby crying triggers milk release - stimulus received by nervous sys. elicits endocrine response.

Anterior pituitary produces and secretes many hormones; secretion regulated by neurohormones from hypothalamus. Growth hormone of importance: promotes growth of many tissue types (bone, cartilage) and stimulates uptake of amino acids and protein synthesis.

Secretion of many hormones regulated by feedback loops.